Historie, stone, cooper and bronze time, roman empire and Greek epoch Syrakus, before christ, culture, ceramics

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No one can make itself a picture of Italy without have seen Sicily, one finds the key of all on this island

(Johann Wolfgang Goethes 1787).
In this area, I would like to tell you something about the beginnings of the Sicilian culture.

The History of the italian island

The old stone time

As the beginnings of the sicilian history were designates the palaeolithicum or the old stone time (in this case 12000 before Christ) During this time, Sicily and the island of Lipari could be called a joint culture circle. A lot of this period is in totally darkness of its antique sources, because very much founds can not be compared with evidences. That makes it difficult to the researcher and impedes the researches, while some sources tells opposite stories about the past and informaions from from Homer, Thukydides, Diodor etc. are also not very helpful.
The few findings out of this time, shows outflows and little settlements at the flat coast. Some animal residues let close on the fauna of the palaeolithicum. Founds of bears, lions, dwarf elephants ans as well from large pachyderms and the rhino or from hippopotamus.

In the San Teodoro-caves in Cefalù at the northern coast of sicily, there were found for example funeral sites and rock drawings in the grotto "Cala dei Genovesi" by "Levanzo" a little island at the western coast of sicily in front of the city Trapani. Earlier the islands on the west coast of sicily, were called egadic islands (isole egadi) and it could probably be that this little islands were connected to sicily mainland. Also in the Addaura-cave in Palermo, at the north side of the Pellegrino mountains, there will be found caves paintings.

As next, the Mesolithicum or middle stone time named (8000 to 4000 v. Chr.) follows. First settling of Malta in the year 5200 v. Christ from Stentinello (Sicily).

The young stone time

The development of some people of hunter and collector to a producing economy form was a result of the so-called neolitic revolution and therewith the settlement, determine the events of this time. In the 4th millennium, new settlers come probably over the seaway to sicily, which shows high experience in shipping and voyage. In old legends for example that of Odysseus (Ulisse) is described how the ship of the adventurers before the west coast of Sicily sank and the garrison has to rescue on the island. The sharpen rocks in front of the coast of sicily have emerged the shipper of past times to settle sicily of reasons of need. Exactly it could not be said where the hermits find there way to sicly, but conceivably they have taken the way from the west coast of the orient to reach to sicily.

The persons of this epoch used to build round or oval cottages, which not common were constructed not rarely erected and as a loose settlement with notable reinforcement walls. This neolitic epoch also young stone time called, brought some ceramics findings, which possesed the name Stentinello ceramics. Near by the village Stentinello you would see until today the neolitic culture and the painted ceramics which are safed there for the posterity.

Copper time (3. millennium before christ) stores

Foto: antic copper work

The copper epoch broke over the mediterranean like a storm, but unlike the preceding epochs sicily didn't lay anylonger at the extremly end, the social and cultural reforms expanded till spain, so in landscape rooms, which in the palaeolithicum and the neolitic phase not belong to the mediterranean culture circle. New imigrants brought there knowledge about the processing of copper, gold, silver and lead to sicily. That new production wise emerged far-reaching social variations with it. The population lived fewer in less settlements then rather in urban settlements, what is seen as an essential impulse for the later development. Until today you can see those effects, finally you will not find any village partnerships on sicily like you know from other mediterranean countries, but rather you'll see little, organicaly grown cities.

Abundant ceramics founds show no longer a characteristic unit, but rather several differentiated developments with fluent development transitions. Moreover the import of that proves 'bells goblet' out of Spain and France that Sicily maintained strong trade contacts to the narrow Western Europe till to the British islands.

To the important cultures of sicily belong that places which gets there names by the place where they were found: Conca d' Oro, San Cono, Piano-Notaro, Conzo, Serraferlicchio, Malpasso, Saint' Ippolito. Each of these cultures took up some perceptive stimulations out of the easr and incorporated it into the characteristic cultural heritage, wherefrom all these frequently changing ceramics types results.
Naturally that influences didn't brought only artistic or industrial variations, but rather also religious views changed under the views of the imigrants. Also here little Statues show - above all simbolic bull horns - how narrow the connections between the orient and sicily was, that can be traced back towards east orient over crete amd the cyclades until anatolie. After the new religious customs they leave the single-stool burial in simple earth pits, and burried the deads now in several deceased grave chambers worked out of the rock, the narrow relations with similar grave types would be found also on Crete, Cyprus and also on Malta. In sicily, that will become the prevailing burial method for many millenniums.

Bronze time (2000-1250 v.Ch.)

Foto: Peter Heman, Basel

The transition of the copper time to the bronze time passed on sicily and the eolic islands fluently, and in both regions it came to an always getting stronger cultural and political independence. Where earlier the cultures on sicily and eolic were really paralell, it drew out of reasons of influences by the west, and the liberic peninsula, a far-reaching diffrence off. On Sicily, it came to the "Castelluccio-epoch" and on the eolic islands to the "Capo-Graziano-culture".
The eolic islands seen to be taken even the central position in the mediterranean see trade between the east and the west. There Obsidian-export, which was for many centuries there important economy base, helps to get a key position in trade, which reached till the british islands which was used to import zinn. A evidence for that width trade are the minoisc-mycenic ceramics, dated on 1600 - 1400 before christ, that were found at many places of the Capo-Graziano-culture.

On sicily, there developed a culture with there own local peculiarities, but nevertheless unmistakable commonalities with others. Next to the ceramic produtcs also the stone industry of this time delivered remarkable success. sicilian products of the bronze time were found on Malta, in Lerna (Peloponnes) and even in Troja.
In the little village Castelluccio were found from P.Orsi on a rock a lot of ceramics, but without references to a village or urban life. To the balance he founds hundreds of oven kind rock chamber graves. The portal disks of these grave chambers have simple symbol-ornaments (main phallic forms) that are the oldest stone sculptures od sicily.

At the beginning of the mediators bronze time (around 1400 before Christ) it seems that a strong change was performed, which appears in change of ceramics forms. The Capo-Graziano and the Castellucci-cultures were immidiately broken out, and on the eolic islands appears the Milazzo-Culture, in Sicily appears the thapsos-epoch. Both cultures passed again more strongly connected than its predecessors.

This change holds probably together with the new peoples imigrations. however the existing settlements neither were left or were changed substantially. Many villages existed through the early to the lare bronze time.
The expanded tradelines of the orient over egalis, sicily and the iberic half island till england to wessex-culture will be shown by the egyptian perl necklace ( out of the amenophis dynasty 1364 - 1347 before christ) on the island Salina. Further there would be found ceramics of the minoic linear - b - type, that would be found since then, ohly on knossos, Mykene and pylos.
Thapsos, on the little peninsula Magnisi, north of Syrakus lying, is left today totally. It was one of the most important settlement zones of the mediator bronze time, and left behind also only sparse remainders of housing, but many rock chamber graves. Corresponding on the terrain, there were 2 types of graves: at flat, rocky coast outflows there would be used a dromos to get there, and on the directly lying peninsula you reached it by a entry tube.

The time between 1250 before christ and the 8th century was for the mediterranean sea cultures a dark epoch, drawn by cultural renewals, peoples migrationm conquests and permanent territorial fights. Once again, sicily and the eolic islands show a diffrent influence and a diffrent cultural development.
Again there are imigration waves to sicily, that however be nominally confessed as: ausonic, morgets, elyms, sikuls. However noone knows something exact about the already existing population. Only the evidences therein by the sikans as peasants before the cyclops settled the island, rules a unity about the antique sources, leaded by thycydides.

The confusion of this time belayed by the archaeological founds, after which the persons have left suddenly its since millenniums fruitful coasts, to resettle in poor montain terrain. All new settlements would be build as propose of defense.

During the eolic culture and the ausonic culture gets clearer, becomes the pantalica-culture the position of the joint denominator of sicily. Next to pantalica you'll find also in cassibile, dirrueri, finocchita and so on, thousands of very similar rock graves. The founds can be dated from the late bronze time to the iron time clearly delimited in four phases. Moreover there were found more influences about the mycenic world in the ceramics and also diffrent little bronze devices. The last Pantálica-epoch delivers also architectural proofs of the connection between Sicily and the early Greece. Middle in the center of the heavily accessible settlement zone directed on defense, the palace of a tribe sovereign, that lies stunningly resembles in both, the outline formation and in the masonry technology of the mycenic units of the Peloponnes.

Time of the Greeks (734 before christ settling of Syrakus)

Foto: Asklepio

Since the 8th century before christ colonies emerged the east and the south of the island. Naxos, Lentini, Catania (all settled of Chalkis), Syrakus (734, Corinth), Megara Iblea (Megara) and Gela (Rhodos and Crete) which established daughter colonies. Selinunte and Agrigent developed from Megara Iblea and Gela.
In the west, the zone of the sicans an helims, emerged predominantly agencies of the phoenician (u. a. Panormos = Palermo, Solunto and Mózia). The cities were mainly trade bases and were existing alliance of the domaestic peasants. whose centers where esentially consisted by segest, erice, entella.
From 559 to 529 before christ Malchus undertook a military expedition from Karthago by sicily, which had a political and militaric independeces of the phoenician agencies as consequence.

The greek colonies, came in short time too large wealth, elsewhere they had also troubles between them, which could be seen on his monument buildings. They created trade relations to the cities of south italy and to Karthago, later (from the 6th century before Christ) also with Rome. BEcause the social structures of the cities favored the country owners, it came on the beginning of the 6th century to internal unrest and produced a tyrannical regime.

Syracus was taken in by the tyrant of gela at the beginning of the 5th century. Therewith the predominance Syrakus began over the southeast of Sicily.
The tyrant Theron of Akragas annexed 483/82 the karthagic city Himera and erected therewith for the first time an islands territorial state. When Theron closed an alliance with its brother-in-law Gelone, Karthago saw therein a threat of its zones. General Hamilkar landed with a large mercenary army in Panormos and hurried the aid call out of Himera toward the banished Terillos. By means of a cunning the greeks overcome the karthags with the leading of Gelon, and after that they burned there fleets.
Hamilkar found his death in these fights, and a peace contract obligates the Karthags to reparations payments , however there zones would be untouched. Between the Greek and the Karthags followed a 70 year long peace phase, which gives above all the Karthags time to establish.

In the year 474 Hieron, the brother and successor Gelons, overcame the etrusks and the cuma and expanded his influence to the greek world and on south italy,
Syrakus developed to the blooming capital of the island and became the most powerful city of the Greeks, partly more powerful than even Athen. Leontini was in the war with Syrakus and asked Athen for aid. Athen saw through the urgent expansion of syracus already its power and interests in danger, and hurried to aid and tried in the course of the peleponic war to get syracus under his control.

Leontini, a city at the east coast of the island, was in the war with syracus. They were informed about the bearing of athen against syracus, and so they ask for aid. Athens intervention passed first of all happily, but find a sudden end as the cities of sicily, closed a peace contracted in Gela. The fleet of athen has to withdraw, but that however was not the end of this discussion, on 416 the cities segesta and selinunte explained mutually the war. Selinunte used the aid of syracus, whereupon segesta claimed helpful on athen. To its regretting, the intensive efforts of the athens brought no successes and Syrakus prevailed 413 with a clear victory against the aggressors.

When Selinus led an attack on the Elymer Segestas, concluded this the Greek-punic-peace period. Segesta had imputes itself before the Karthags, and so its intervention obtained. Both Selinus and Himera were destroyed, latter also out of revenge because of the defeat 480 against Gelon. To be sure a peace treatment between Syracus and Selinus existed, but Syrakus - was weakened through the battle against athen - strove together with the Karthagern around to get a peaceful s settlement of the conflict.

408/7 led Hermokrates a guerilla war against the Karthager and propagated a complete greek empire battle against the arch enemy Karthago. 406/5 reacted the punics with a military blow. The following peace contract favored the Karthager:
The karthagic influence zone was expanded, however also the tyrant became to stabilize Syrakus, Dionysios 1st was nominally confirmed around the Greek domestic policy and to guarantee therewith a durable peace on the island.

Dionysios 1st armed himself and broke the peace contract with a war declaration to Karthago with the goal, to free all Greek cities. The war brought no larger variations and was received 392 before christ by the Karthag Mago for a short time.

Time of the Romans (ca. 300 v. Chr.)

The Romans "pacified" (like they loved to say) the island during the first punic war (264-241) and made it to the province "Sicilia". Syracus remained until 212 independent. To heaviest military defeats of Rome, Syrakus with Karthago allies itself and fells 212 through treason at the Romans. That would the occasion where archimede said "don't disturb my circles.";

Sicily became the grain chamber of the Roman empire. The island suffors under the strong exploitation of the governor, which could be read pretty well in the speeches of ciceros (106-43 before christ) against verres ( which was one of the governors). Unfortunately must be mentioned here, that Verres fell probably only therefore in disgrace, because he retained treasures and art objects for itself. If he had made available the fruits of its exploitation something more to the state, one would have celebrated it probably as a hero. Next to the exploitation, Sicily became shake also of the resulting slave wars from (136-132 & 104-101).